By the time the Second Continental Congress met in May 1775, armed conflict between British soldiers and American rebels had already been fought at Lexington and Concord in Massachusetts. Congress appointed George Washington of Virginia to coordinate a unified American war effort as the commander in chief of the Continental Army.

In a final attempt to prevent all-out war, Congress communicated its grievances directly to King George, but the king declared that the colonies were in a state of rebellion. As the months wore on, public opinion in the colonies shifted further toward independence.

On July 2, 1776, Congress adopted a resolution declaring independence from Great Britain. The Declaration of Independence was issued on July 4 and circulated in newspapers. Washington ordered the Declaration of Independence to be read aloud to his troops.

Decades later, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams commissioned engraver William J. Stone to make an exact replica of the Declaration of Independence in 1820. Approximately 200 copies were produced in 1823; fewer than 50 are known to still exist, including this one.

On loan from David M. Rubenstein

Leaders in the American colonies assembled in Philadelphia in September 1774 to address their grievances against Parliament.

On October 20, 1774, the First Continental Congress adopted the Articles of Association, a nonimportation, nonexportation, and nonconsumption agreement between the colonies urging all colonists to boycott British goods.

The Articles of Association is the first documented instance of the American colonies coordinating policy together, and was signed by 53 delegates

Records of the Continental and Confederation Congresses and the Constitutional Convention, National Archives

George Washington’s troops were encamped at Valley Forge, PA, during the harsh winter of 1777–1778. In February 1778, Congress ordered all Continental Army officers to swear an oath of allegiance. Oath takers swore “the United States of America, to be Free, Independent and Sovereign States, and declare that the people thereof owe no allegiance or obedience to George the Third, King of Great Britain.”

Oaths were then signed and witnessed. Approximately 1,200 oaths survive in the National Archives, including these three signed by George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and Aaron Burr.

War Department Collection of Revolutionary War Records, National Archives

After eight long years of war, the United States and Great Britain signed the Treaty of Paris on September 3, 1783, formally recognizing the United States as an independent nation. John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and John Jay negotiated with Great Britain on behalf of the United States and achieved British recognition of American independence and the delineation of land boundaries that allowed for America’s westward expansion. The last page of the treaty bears the signatures of the American negotiators and that of David Hartley, who represented Great Britain.

General Records of the United States Government, National Archives

Once the United States was free and independent, individual states retained most governing powers under the Articles of Confederation. Concerns over their effectiveness soon became evident. The new nation badly needed to pay off its war debts, and there was no method to collect taxes. A supermajority of states was required to pass most laws.

A constitutional convention was called in 1787 to address these challenges. Delegates met at Philadelphia in Independence Hall, where they scrapped the Articles of Confederation and created a new system of government under the United States Constitution.

Two printings of the draft of what eventually became the Constitution were provided to the delegates. This copy belonged to New Jersey delegate David Brearley Jr., and includes Brearley’s handwritten annotations as the delegates debated.

Records of the Continental and Confederation Congresses and the Constitutional Convention, National Archives

For four months, delegates to the Constitutional Convention discussed what the new government should look like. Their debates, arguments, and resolutions are reflected in the convention’s voting records. This page documents the vote on the final text of the Constitution. Eleven of the 13 states voted because Rhode Island did not send delegates to the convention, and two of New York’s three delegates had already departed, thus leaving the delegation without a quorum.

Records of the Continental and Confederation Congresses and the Constitutional Convention, National Archives

After the Constitution was ratified by the states and became the supreme law of the land, Representative James Madison proposed a series of amendments. Several states advocated for additional protections for individual liberties.

This is the U.S. Senate’s “markup” of what became the Bill of Rights. On September 25, 1789, Congress passed these 12 amendments, and they were sent to the states for approval. Articles 3 through 12 were ratified in 1791, ensuring such basic American freedoms as the right to freedom of speech, freedom of worship, and freedom of assembly.

Records of the United States Senate, National Archives